Transformation and Materialization
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.
Transformation and Materialization
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.
Transformation and Materialization
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.
Transformation and Materialization
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.
Transformation and Materialization
If material and energy both have mass and weight, can one be transformed into the other? Are they really different forms of one substance? Some philosophers
before Einstein thought that some single substance underlies both material and movement, but they couldn’t prove their ideas. Einstein foresaw ways to convert energy into matter and back again. He told us just how much energy we need to make a given amount of matter, and how much energy we can obtain from matter. He presented his idea as follows:
The most important upshot of the special theory of relativity concerned the inert masses of corporeal systems. It turned out that the inertia of a system necessarily depends on its energy-content, and this led straight to the notion that inert mass is simply latent energy. The principle of the conservation of mass lost its independence and became fused with that of the conservation of energy.[i]
[i] Einstein, Albert, “What is the theory of relativity?”, The London Times, November 28, 1919, reprinted in Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Wings Books, 1954), p. 230.
Through Einstein’s theory we came to understand how material can turn into energy, and vice versa.
This conversion does not happen in chemical burning or in nuclear fission. In those reactions, binding energy is released. There is another kind of nuclear burning, fusion, that combines small nuclei into larger ones. Some fusion reactions turn certain subatomic particles completely into energy. Also, physicists invented cyclotrons, machines that whirl electrons round and round, each time a little faster, and accelerate them to very high speeds. When sufficiently high-speed particles crash into others the particles may disappear completely and release energy as very energetic X-rays. Cyclotrons and other instruments that accelerate particles have demonstrated repeatedly that energy can turn into matter (materialize), and that matter can turn into energy. The theory is abundantly confirmed and has become a law of nature. We continue to say Einstein’s “theory” of relativity because Einstein himself did not do the experiments that confirmed it. He liked to propose “thought experiments” but he left real laboratory experiments to others.
Einstein’s formula, E = mc², tells us that a given quantity of energy E is equivalent to an amount of mass m.
Different Kinds of Rays and Materialization in "Empty" Space
Material is composed of subatomic particles like neutrons, protons, and electrons, listed in order from highest to lowest weight. Electromagnetic rays are the tracks of energy particles called photons.
The weight and the energy of a photon are directly proportional to the rapidity of vibration of the rays.
Photons can produce particles if the equivalent mass of the photons is at least as great as the mass of the particles. Since c² is a large number, we need very energetic photons to make even low-mass particles.
X-rays have the most energetic photons scientists can produce with laboratory equipment. Low-energy gamma rays are identical to X-rays, but the term “gamma rays” refers to rays from natural sources. Some gamma rays have photons that are much more energetic than the most energetic X-ray photons we can produce. To materialize, rays must be at least as energetic as the energetic X-rays physicists make with cyclotrons or linear accelerators.
A single ray cannot materialize all by itself. Two rays, or a ray and a particle, must collide to materialize. If there is a particle present then the space is not empty, so let us describe first the collision of two rays in empty space. When gamma rays or energetic X-rays collide, they convert some or all of their energy into particles. The particles may be components of atoms, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, or other, less well-known particles. We cannot see atoms because atoms are 5 000 times smaller than light waves. Subatomic particles are even smaller. During the collision, some of the original energy may become kinetic energy, the energy of moving objects. If so, the particles will depart from the scene of their materialization at high speed. If any of the original energy remains, it will travel on as one or more photons of lower energy. The photons continue to collide and fracture until they lack enough energy to materialize.
Sufficiently energetic rays become visible when they collide, fracture, and partially materialize as particles. The particles must form atoms, and the atoms must combine in great numbers before there is visible material. The remaining energy may be soft X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. Only the light rays are visible.
An electron has the lowest mass of the three most common subatomic particles. Its mass is equivalent to the energy of the hard X-ray photons we use for treating cancer, much more than the energy of the softer X-ray photons we use for medical diagnosis. Visible light photons are far too weak to make electrons, let alone protons or neutrons. Photons of heat, light, ultraviolet rays, and soft X-rays are all too weak to materialize.
Light rays are visible and make other things visible. All other rays are invisible. They carry energy in darkness.
When doctors make an X-ray picture, they send a powerful pulse of energy through the patient’s body. The X-rays expose the film, but the patient sees nothing. To the patient X-rays are dark.
Since we can see the stars, we know that light can travel in space. We say that space is empty when it contains no matter, but empty space always contains the energy of heat and of any light or gamma rays in transit. We have never been able to make any space so cold and dark that it has no energy at all. Electromagnetic rays can exist in empty space, and there they can make material.
First Evening: Energy and Particles
A special kind of energetic darkness made the material of the universe. To understand how pure energy can make particles, we need to know how much energy it takes to make a particle. Finally, we will be ready to look at another confirmation.
The Energy of Particles
How much energy does it take to make a subatomic particle? Once we know the particle’s mass, we multiply the mass by the square of the speed of light to find the latent energy, using Einstein’s famous formula, E=mc².
The mass of an electron is 910.938 188 micro-micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
There are prefixes for combining repetitions of “micro.” A micro-microgram is a picogram, a micro-picogram is an attogram, and a micro-attogram is a yoctogram. However, we promised not to use technical language. Even if we did use technical language, there is no prefix yet established for a micro-yoctogram. We could invent one and say that the mass of an electron is 910.938 188 “itsy-bitsy-grams.” Is that better or worse than awkward repetitions?
Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the major components of nuclei. Nucleons are almost 2000 times heavier than electrons.
The proton mass is 1.672 621 58 micro-micro-micro-micrograms. The neutron mass is slightly heavier, 1.674 927 16 micro-micro-micro-micrograms.
Appendix A collects physical constants that are explained in the text. It also shows an easier way of writing large and small numbers for people who understand mathematical notation. Appendix B corrects the erroneous idea that the Bible says that the Earth doesn’t move.